Chapter 2 Cultural Change

Social Reform Movements In The 19th And Early 20th Century

The 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed significant social reform movements in India, largely a response to the challenges and paradoxes of colonial rule. These movements creatively combined modern Western ideas of liberalism, freedom, and human rights with a re-examination of traditional Indian literature and philosophy.

Key aspects driving these reforms included:

• New Technologies and Communication: Innovations like the printing press, telegraph, and railways facilitated the rapid spread of new ideas and connections among reformers across regions.
• New Forms of Organization: The establishment of modern organizations like the Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, and Muslim women's associations provided platforms for debate and action through public meetings and journals.
• Mix of Ideas: Reformers drew upon both Western liberal thought and reinterpretations of traditional texts to challenge social evils like Sati, child marriage, widow remarriage, and caste discrimination.

These movements aimed at improving the status of women, eradicating caste oppression, and fostering a sense of national pride while grappling with tradition and modernity. Figures like Raja Rammohun Roy, Vidyasagar, Ranade, Jotiba Phule, and Sir Syed Ahmed Khan were instrumental in these reform efforts.

Box 2.1 details the diverse intellectual influences on reformers. Activity 2.1 suggests researching specific social reformers and their campaigns.

How Do We Approach The Study Of Sanskritisation, Modernisation, Secularisation And Westernisation

These four concepts—sanskritisation, modernisation, secularisation, and westernisation—are interconnected processes of social change that have impacted India, often co-existing and overlapping. While sanskritisation predates colonialism, the other three are largely responses to the changes brought about by colonial modernity.

Modernity involves a shift from local, parochial perspectives to universal, cosmopolitan attitudes, prioritizing utility, calculation, and science over emotion and the sacred. It emphasizes the individual over the group, achieved identity over ascribed identity, and mastery over fatalism. However, in India, these processes often manifest paradoxically, with individuals adopting modern practices while retaining traditional beliefs or selectively reinterpreting traditions.

Activity 2.2 encourages class discussion on the common understanding of terms like 'Western,' 'Modern,' 'Secular,' and 'Sanskritised,' and Activity 2.3 prompts identifying instances of mixing tradition and modernity in everyday life.

Different Kinds Of Social Change

Sanskritisation

Coined by M.N. Srinivas, sanskritisation refers to the process by which lower castes or groups adopt the customs, rituals, beliefs, and lifestyle of higher, often 'twice-born,' castes to improve their social status. It influences language, ideology, and lifestyle. While it can lead to upward mobility within the existing hierarchy (positional change), it has been criticized for reinforcing inequality, accepting upper-caste norms as superior, potentially justifying purity-pollution concepts, and eroding Dalit culture. The desire for sanskritization often arises with improved economic or political status or increased 'Great Tradition' contact.

Studies show variations in sanskritisation, with some regions experiencing more influence than others. Conversely, 'de-Sanskritisation' can occur where non-Sanskritic cultures are dominant. The concept has also been challenged for its emphasis on imitating upper castes rather than seeking structural change.

Box 2.4 illustrates the varied reactions to a Dalit woman studying Sanskrit, highlighting the persistent challenges of caste identity.

Activity 2.4 asks students to consider whether sanskritisation affects men and women differently.

Westernisation

Westernisation refers to the adoption of Western cultural traits—technology, institutions, ideology, values, lifestyles, dress, food, and ways of thinking—resulting from prolonged contact with Western (primarily British) culture during colonialism and beyond. This can manifest as adopting external forms without necessarily internalizing modern values like democracy and equality.

Early westernization was prominent among an Indian educated elite, while later phases saw a broader spread of Western (and increasingly American) cultural elements, particularly in urban middle-class homes. The influence is seen in lifestyle choices (e.g., home décor, clothing) and ways of thinking (e.g., embracing concepts of liberty and equality).

Box 2.2 discusses the influence of Western ideas like 'On Liberty.' Box 2.3 shows how lifestyle choices (food, dress) can reflect Westernization. Box 2.4 analyzes Ravi Varma's art as a blend of Indian tradition and Western techniques. Box 2.5 captures generational conflicts arising from Westernization. Activity 2.5 prompts reflection on the complexities of Westernization and potential contradictions in adopting external forms without internalizing values.

Activity 2.6 draws attention to contemporary forms of Westernization, contrasting American accents with British influence.

Modernisation And Secularisation

Modernisation is a complex process associated with technological advancement, economic growth, and the adoption of Western developmental paths. It implies a shift from local, parochial perspectives to universal, rational, and scientific worldviews, with the individual gaining prominence over the group. Secularization, in the Western context, refers to the decline of religion's influence in public life. However, in India, these processes are intertwined with tradition, leading to unique combinations. Modernization involves rethinking and reinterpreting traditions, as seen in the adoption of the modern sari.

In India, the coexistence of modernity and tradition is common. While modernization implies rationality and individualism, traditional practices like arranged marriages, caste affiliations, and religious beliefs often persist and are reinterpreted. The rise of religious consciousness and conflict globally challenges the assumption that modernity inevitably leads to secularization. The secularization of caste, where caste identities shift from religious to political mobilization, exemplifies this complex interplay.

Activity 2.7 suggests analyzing advertisements during festivals to understand how tradition and modernity are mixed. Activity 2.8 prompts reflection on the secular dimensions of rituals and the politicization of caste.